Early intermediates in bacterial RNA polymerase promoter melting visualized by time-resolved cryo-electron microscopy.

During formation of the transcription-competent open complex (RPo) by bacterial RNA polymerases (RNAP), transient intermediates pile up before overcoming a rate-limiting step. Structural descriptions of these interconversions in real time are unavailable. To address this gap, time-resolved cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) was used to capture four intermediates populated 120 or 500 milliseconds (ms) after mixing Escherichia coli σ70-RNAP and the λPR promoter. Cryo-EM snapshots revealed the upstream edge of the transcription bubble unpairs rapidly, followed by stepwise insertion of two conserved nontemplate strand (nt-strand) bases into RNAP pockets. As nt-strand "read-out" extends, the RNAP clamp closes, expelling an inhibitory σ70 domain from the active-site cleft. The template strand is fully unpaired by 120 ms but remains dynamic, indicating yet unknown conformational changes load it in subsequent steps. Because these events likely describe DNA opening at many bacterial promoters, this study provides needed insights into how DNA sequence regulates steps of RPo formation.

CryoCycle your grids: Plunge vitrifying and reusing clipped grids to advance cryoEM democratization.

CryoEM democratization is hampered by access to costly plunge-freezing supplies. We introduce methods, called CryoCycle, for reliably blotting, vitrifying, and reusing clipped cryoEM grids. We demonstrate that vitreous ice may be produced by plunging clipped grids with purified proteins into liquid ethane and that clipped grids may be reused several times for different protein samples. Furthermore, we demonstrate the vitrification of thin areas of cells prepared on gold-coated, pre-clipped grids.

Genetic Underpinnings of Carotenogenesis and Light-Induced Transcriptome Remodeling in the Opportunistic Pathogen Mycobacterium kansasii.

Mycobacterium kansasii (Mk) causes opportunistic pulmonary infections with tuberculosis-like features. The bacterium is well known for its photochromogenicity, i.e., the production of carotenoid pigments in response to light. The genetics defining the photochromogenic phenotype of Mk has not been investigated and defined pigmentation mutants to facilitate studies on the role of carotenes in the bacterium's biology are not available thus far. In this study, we set out to identify genetic determinants involved in Mk photochromogenicity. We screened a library of ~150,000 transposon mutants for colonies with pigmentation abnormalities. The screen rendered a collection of ~200 mutants. Each of these mutants could be assigned to one of four distinct phenotypic groups. The insertion sites in the mutant collection clustered in three chromosomal regions. A combination of phenotypic analysis, sequence bioinformatics, and gene expression studies linked these regions to carotene biosynthesis, carotene degradation, and monounsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis. Furthermore, introduction of the identified carotenoid biosynthetic gene cluster into non-pigmented Mycobacterium smegmatis endowed the bacterium with photochromogenicity. The studies also led to identification of MarR-type and TetR/AcrR-type regulators controlling photochromogenicity and carotenoid breakdown, respectively. Lastly, the work presented also provides a first insight into the Mk transcriptome changes in response to light.

Cryo-Electron Microscopic Grid Preparation for Time-Resolved Studies using a Novel Robotic System, Spotiton.

The capture of short-lived molecular states triggered by the early encounter of two or more interacting particles continues to be an experimental challenge of great interest to the field of cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM). A few methodological strategies have been developed that support these "time-resolved" studies, one of which, Spotiton-a novel robotic system-combines the dispensing of picoliter-sized sample droplets with precise temporal and spatial control. The time-resolved Spotiton workflow offers a uniquely efficient approach to interrogate early structural rearrangements from minimal sample volume. Fired from independently controlled piezoelectric dispensers, two samples land and rapidly mix on a nanowire EM grid as it plunges toward the cryogen. Potentially hundreds of grids can be prepared in rapid succession from only a few microliters of a sample. Here, a detailed step-by-step protocol of the operation of the Spotiton system is presented with a focus on troubleshooting specific problems that arise during grid preparation.

Time-resolved cryo-EM using Spotiton.

We present an approach for preparing cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) grids to study short-lived molecular states. Using piezoelectric dispensing, two independent streams of ~50-pl droplets of sample are deposited within 10 ms of each other onto the surface of a nanowire EM grid, and the mixing reaction stops when the grid is vitrified in liquid ethane ~100 ms later. We demonstrate this approach for four biological systems where short-lived states are of high interest.

Transposon mutagenesis in Mycobacterium kansasii links a small RNA gene to colony morphology and biofilm formation and identifies 9,885 intragenic insertions that do not compromise colony outgrowth.

Mycobacterium kansasii (Mk) is a resilient opportunistic human pathogen that causes tuberculosis-like chronic pulmonary disease and mortality stemming from comorbidities and treatment failure. The standard treatment of Mk infections requires costly, long-term, multidrug courses with adverse side effects. The emergence of drug-resistant isolates further complicates the already challenging drug therapy regimens and threatens to compromise the future control of Mk infections. Despite the increasingly recognized global burden of Mk infections, the biology of this opportunistic pathogen remains essentially unexplored. In particular, studies reporting gene function or generation of defined mutants are scarce. Moreover, no transposon (Tn) mutagenesis tool has been validated for use in Mk, a situation limiting the repertoire of genetic approaches available to accelerate the dissection of gene function and the generation of gene knockout mutants in this poorly characterized pathogen. In this study, we validated the functionality of a powerful Tn mutagenesis tool in Mk and used this tool in conjunction with a forward genetic screen to establish a previously unrecognized role of a conserved mycobacterial small RNA gene of unknown function in colony morphology features and biofilm formation. We also combined Tn mutagenesis with next-generation sequencing to identify 12,071 Tn insertions that do not compromise viability in vitro. Finally, we demonstrated the susceptibility of the Galleria mellonella larva to Mk, setting the stage for further exploration of this simple and economical infection model system to the study of this pathogen.

Pleiotropic consequences of gene knockouts in the phthiocerol dimycocerosate and phenolic glycolipid biosynthetic gene cluster of the opportunistic human pathogen Mycobacterium marinum.

Phthiocerol dimycocerosates (PDIMs) and phenolic glycolipids (PGLs) contribute to the pathogenicity of several mycobacteria. Biosynthesis of these virulence factors requires polyketide synthases and other enzymes that represent potential targets for the development of adjuvant antivirulence drugs. We used six isogenic Mycobacterium marinum mutants, each with a different gene knockout in the PDIM/PGL biosynthetic pathway, to probe the pleiotropy of mutations leading to PDIM(-) PGL(-), PDIM(+) PGL(-) or PDIM(-) PGL(+) phenotypes. We evaluated the M. marinum mutants for changes in antibiotic susceptibility, cell envelope permeability, biofilm formation, surface properties, sliding motility and virulence in an amoeba model. The analysis also permitted us to begin exploring the hypothesis that different gene knockouts rendering the same PDIM and/or PGL deficiency phenotypes lead to M. marinum mutants with equivalent pleiotropic profiles. Overall, the results of our study revealed a complex picture of pleiotropic patterns emerging from different gene knockouts, uncovered unexpected phenotypic inequalities between mutants, and provided new insight into the phenotypic consequences of gene knockouts in the PDIM/PGL biosynthetic pathway.

Completion of the entire hepatitis C virus life cycle in genetically humanized mice.

More than 130 million people worldwide chronically infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV) are at risk of developing severe liver disease. Antiviral treatments are only partially effective against HCV infection, and a vaccine is not available. Development of more efficient therapies has been hampered by the lack of a small animal model. Building on the observation that CD81 and occludin (OCLN) comprise the minimal set of human factors required to render mouse cells permissive to HCV entry, we previously showed that transient expression of these two human genes is sufficient to allow viral uptake into fully immunocompetent inbred mice. Here we demonstrate that transgenic mice stably expressing human CD81 and OCLN also support HCV entry, but innate and adaptive immune responses restrict HCV infection in vivo. Blunting antiviral immunity in genetically humanized mice infected with HCV results in measurable viraemia over several weeks. In mice lacking the essential cellular co-factor cyclophilin A (CypA), HCV RNA replication is markedly diminished, providing genetic evidence that this process is faithfully recapitulated. Using a cell-based fluorescent reporter activated by the NS3-4A protease we visualize HCV infection in single hepatocytes in vivo. Persistently infected mice produce de novo infectious particles, which can be inhibited with directly acting antiviral drug treatment, thereby providing evidence for the completion of the entire HCV life cycle in inbred mice. This genetically humanized mouse model opens new opportunities to dissect genetically HCV infection in vivo and provides an important preclinical platform for testing and prioritizing drug candidates and may also have utility for evaluating vaccine efficacy.

Characterization of human antiviral adaptive immune responses during hepatotropic virus infection in HLA-transgenic human immune system mice.

Humanized mice have emerged as a promising model to study human immunity in vivo. Although they are susceptible to many pathogens exhibiting an almost exclusive human tropism, human immune responses to infection remain functionally impaired. It has recently been demonstrated that the expression of HLA molecules improves human immunity to lymphotropic virus infections in humanized mice. However, little is known about the extent of functional human immune responses in nonlymphoid tissues, such as in the liver, and the role of HLA expression in this context. Therefore, we analyzed human antiviral immunity in humanized mice during a hepatotropic adenovirus infection. We compared immune responses of conventional humanized NOD SCID IL-2Rγ-deficient (NSG) mice to those of a novel NOD SCID IL-2Rγ-deficient strain transgenic for both HLA-A*0201 and a chimeric HLA-DR*0101 molecule. Using a firefly luciferase-expressing adenovirus and in vivo bioluminescence imaging, we demonstrate a human T cell-dependent partial clearance of adenovirus-infected cells from the liver of HLA-transgenic humanized mice. This correlated with liver infiltration and activation of T cells, as well as the detection of Ag-specific humoral and cellular immune responses. When infected with a hepatitis C virus NS3-expressing adenovirus, HLA-transgenic humanized mice mounted an HLA-A*0201-restricted hepatitis C virus NS3-specific CD8(+) T cell response. In conclusion, our study provides evidence for the generation of partial functional antiviral immune responses against a hepatotropic pathogen in humanized HLA-transgenic mice. The adenovirus reporter system used in our study may serve as simple in vivo method to evaluate future strategies for improving human intrahepatic immune responses in humanized mice.